Regulating extraterritorial gatekeepers: The failure of traditional dominance criteria in developing digital markets – a case study of Vietnam
Keywords:
Digital Gatekeepers, Market Dominance, Competition Law, Vietnam, Multi-Sided Markets, Ex Ante Regulation, Developing JurisdictionsAbstract
Cross-border platforms act as gatekeepers of market access in Vietnam, yet they are difficult to reach under the Competition Law 2018. The law measures dominance through market shares built on turnover and volume, and zero-price services monetised offshore leave those shares very hard to compute. Domestic firms therefore carry the full weight of competition, licensing and tax rules, while larger foreign rivals face little enforcement. This article locates the failure at three points, namely market definition, share measurement, and the distance between share and the real sources of platform power. It then tests the June 2026 draft omnibus amendment to the Competition Law against each point. The draft adopts user-based share metrics and platform-specific abuses, so it answers part of the diagnosis, but it keeps market-wide denominators, retains prior market definition, and leaves the fine base in Article 111(1) untouched. Drawing on the European Union, Germany, the United Kingdom and India, and on the large digital platform regime already in Decree 55/2024/ND-CP, the article proposes a designation regime resting on global financial scale and local user reach, with reporting duties, due process and a fine base that survives offshore accounting.
Downloads
References
Act on Promotion of Competition for Specified Smartphone Software (Japan), Act No. 58 of 2024. Available at: https://www.jftc.go.jp/file/240612EN3.pdf (accessed on 21 September 2026).
ALLEN, J. G., and LIAO, Q. X. M. “Digital economy innovation in the indo-pacific: Towards a ‘Singapore effect’?”. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, v. 26, n. 4, 2025, pp. 680-711. https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340377
ASEAN EXPERTS GROUP ON COMPETITION. ASEAN competition action plan 2016-2025, Jakarta. 2016. Available at: https://asean-competition.org/file/post_image/ACAP%20(Website)%2023%20December%202016.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2026).
AUSTRALIAN COMPETITION AND CONSUMER COMMISSION. Digital platforms inquiry: Final report, Canberra. 2019. Available at: https://www.accc.gov.au/about-us/publications/digital-platforms-inquiry-final-report (accessed on 20 July 2026).
BRADFORD, A. The brussels effect: How the European Union rules the world. Oxford University Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190088583.001.0001
BUNDESKARTELLAMT. Proceedings against large digital companies. Available at: https://www.bundeskartellamt.de/EN/Digital_economy/proceedings_against_large_digital_companies/proceedings_against_large_digital_companies.html (accessed on 10 July 2026).
CASBAA. Video policies for Asian pay-TV and OTT: Same same but different? 2016. Available at: https://gscoalition.org/cms-data/case-studies/CAS_Same_Same_but_Different.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2026).
CENTER FOR STRATEGIC AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES. Guarding the gates: The digital markets act and lessons in Ex Ante regulation. 2025. Available at: https://www.csis.org/blogs/charting-geoeconomics/guarding-gates-digital-markets-act-and-lessons-ex-ante-regulation (accessed on 10 July 2026).
CHAISSE, J. The black pit: Power and pitfalls of digital FDI and cross-border data flows”. World Trade Review, v. 22, n. 1, 2023, pp. 73-89. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474745622000337
CHAISSE, J., and BAUER, C. “Cybersecurity and the protection of digital assets: Assessing the role of international investment law and arbitration”. Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment & Technology Law, v. 21, n. 3, 2019, pp. 549-589. Available at: https://scholarship.law.vanderbilt.edu/jetlaw/vol21/iss3/5 (accessed on 8 August 2026).
CHAISSE, J., and DIMITROPOULOS, G. “Domestic investment laws and international economic law in the liberal international order”. World Trade Review, v. 22, n. 1, 2023, pp. 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474745622000404
CHAISSE, J., DIMITROPOULOS, G., and MOSQUERA, I. “Law and digital transformation in the indo-pacific: An international economic law perspective”. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, v. 26, n. 4, 2025, pp. 575-620. https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340376
Circular No. 80/2021/TT-BTC of the Ministry of Finance dated 29 September 2021 (Viet Nam). Available at: https://congbao.chinhphu.vn/van-ban/thong-tu-so-80-2021-tt-btc-34774.htm (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (Electronic Commerce). Available at: https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/in-force/cptpp/comprehensive-and-progressive-agreement-for-trans-pacific-partnership (accessed on 24 September 2026).
CRÉMER, J., DE MONTJOYE, Y.-A., and SCHWEITZER, H. “Competition policy for the digital era”. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2019. https://doi.org/10.2763/407537
DATAREPORTAL. Digital 2025: Vietnam. 2025. Available at: https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2025-vietnam (accessed on 20 September 2026).
Decree No. 03/2023/ND-CP of the Government dated 10 February 2023 on the functions, tasks, powers and organizational structure of the Viet Nam Competition Commission (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=207423 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Decree No. 35/2020/ND-CP of the Government dated 24 March 2020 detailing a number of articles of the Law on Competition (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/default.aspx?pageid=27160&docid=199508 (accessed on 20 September 2026).
Decree No. 356/2025/ND-CP of the Government detailing the Law on Personal Data Protection (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=216387 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Decree No. 53/2022/ND-CP of the Government dated 15 August 2022 detailing a number of articles of the Law on Cybersecurity (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=206381 (accessed on 20 September 2026).
Decree No. 55/2024/ND-CP of the Government dated 16 May 2024 detailing a number of articles of the Law on Protection of Consumers’ Rights (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=210254 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Decree No. 70/2021/ND-CP of the Government dated 20 July 2021 amending Decree No. 181/2013/ND-CP guiding the Law on Advertising (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/default.aspx?pageid=27160&docid=203700 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Decree No. 71/2022/ND-CP of the Government dated 1 October 2022 amending Decree No. 06/2016/ND-CP on the management, provision and use of radio and television services (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=206630 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Decree No. 75/2019/ND-CP of the Government dated 26 September 2019 on penalties for administrative violations in the field of competition (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=197954 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Act 2024 (United Kingdom). Available at: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2024/13 (accessed on 20 July 2026).
DIMITROPOULOS, G. “Digital plurilateralism in international economic law: Towards unilateral multilateralism?”. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, v. 26, n. 1-2, 2025, pp. 116-155. https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340354
Draft Digital Competition Bill, 2024 (India), annexed to the Report of the Committee on Digital Competition Law, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, New Delhi, 2024. Available at: https://prsindia.org/files/parliamentry-announcement/2024-04-15/CDCL-Report-20240312.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2026).
European Commission, Decision of 18 July 2018, Case AT.40099 – Google Android. Available at: https://competition-cases.ec.europa.eu/cases/AT.40099 (accessed on 24 September 2026).
EU–Viet Nam Free Trade Agreement, ch. 8. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:2020:186:FULL&from=EN (accessed on 20 September 2026).
EVANS, D. S., and SCHMALENSEE, R. Matchmakers: The new economics of multisided platforms. Harvard Business Review Press. 2016. Available at: https://store.hbr.org/product/matchmakers-the-new-economics-of-multisided-platforms/10028 (accessed on 20 July 2026).
GENERAL STATISTICS OFFICE OF VIET NAM. Press release: Socio-economic situation in the fourth quarter and 2025. 2026. Available at: https://www.nso.gov.vn/en/data-and-statistics/2026/01/press-release-social-economic-situation-in-the-fourth-quarter-and-2025 (accessed on 20 September 2026).
GOOGLE, TEMASEK, BAIN and COMPANY. e-Conomy SEA 2024: Profits on the rise, harnessing SEA’s advantage. 2024. Available at: https://www.bain.com/insights/e-conomy-sea-2024/ (accessed on 8 August 2026).
GRANT THORNTON. Determining gatekeepers under the digital markets act. 2024. Available at: https://www.grantthornton.ie/insights/factsheets/determining-gatekeepers-under-the-digital-markets-act/ (accessed on 10 July 2026).
Gesetz gegen Wettbewerbsbeschränkungen (German Act against Restraints of Competition), sec. 19a, introduced by the Tenth Amendment to the GWB (GWB-Digitalisierungsgesetz), in force since 19 January 2021. Available at: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gwb/ (accessed on 24 September 2026).
HA, T. “Vietnam: Merger control - three years after the grab/uber case”. Lexology, 2022. Available at: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=cd3efedd-4ee8-4497-bf8c-a3aeb2e6b0df (accessed on 10 July 2026).
HNLU CENTRE FOR COMPETITION AND COMMERCIAL LAW STUDIES. Contesting the ‘big tech’ tag: India’s digital competition bill at a turning point. 2025. Available at: https://hnluccls.in/2025/12/16/contesting-the-big-tech-tag-indias-digital-competition-bill-at-a-turning-point/ (accessed on 10 July 2026).
INTERNATIONAL BAR ASSOCIATION. Digital platform regulation: Developments in Germany. 2025. Available at: https://www.ibanet.org/digital-platform-regulation-germany-dma (accessed on 10 July 2026).
KAMEPALLI, S. K., RAJAN, R., and ZINGALES, L. “Kill Zone”. NBER Working Paper No. 27146, National Bureau of Economic Research. 2020. https://doi.org/10.3386/w27146
KHAN, L. M. “Amazon’s antitrust paradox”. The Yale Law Journal, v. 126, n. 3, 2017, pp. 710-805. Available at: https://www.yalelawjournal.org/note/amazons-antitrust-paradox (accessed on 20 July 2026).
KOBAYASHI, T. “Supply chains, digital governance, and strategic coordination in the indo-pacific: A case study of Japan’s semiconductor policy”. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, v. 26, n. 4, 2025, pp. 648-679. https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340370
Law No. 19/2023/QH15 on Protection of Consumers’ Rights (Viet Nam). Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=208363 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Law No. 23/2018/QH14 on Competition (Viet Nam), adopted 12 June 2018. Available at: https://wipolex.wipo.int/en/legislation/details/19109 (accessed on 20 July 2026).
Law No. 38/2019/QH14 on Tax Administration (Viet Nam), adopted 13 June 2019. Available at: https://vanban.chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=197312 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
Law on Data No. 60/2024/QH15 of Viet Nam, in force 1 July 2025. Available at: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Bo-may-hanh-chinh/Luat-Du-lieu-2024-so-60-2024-QH15-621343.aspx (accessed on 24 September 2026).
Law on Personal Data Protection No. 91/2025/QH15 (Viet Nam). Available at: https://chinhphu.vn/?pageid=27160&docid=214590&classid=1&typegroupid=3 (accessed on 21 September 2026).
LEXOLOGY. Vietnam’s decree 35: Clarifications on merger notification thresholds and procedures. 2020. Available at: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=64b2e6e8-e178-408a-8bce-22278ff7f43f (accessed on 10 July 2026).
MINISTRY OF CORPORATE AFFAIRS (India), COMMITTEE ON DIGITAL COMPETITION LAW. Report of the committee on digital competition law. 2024. Available at: https://prsindia.org/files/parliamentry-announcement/2024-04-15/CDCL-Report-20240312.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2026).
MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY AND TRADE (Viet Nam). Draft Law Amending and Supplementing a Number of Articles of the Law on Commerce, the Law on Competition, the Law on Foreign Trade Management and the Law on Protection of Consumers’ Rights, public consultation text, 16 June 2026. Available at: https://luatvietnam.vn/thuong-mai/du-thao-luat-sua-doi-bo-sung-luat-thuong-mai-canh-tranh-quan-ly-ngoai-thuong-bao-ve-quyen-loi-tieu-dung-436441-d10.html (accessed on 20 September 2026).
MINISTRY OF INDUSTRY AND TRADE (Viet Nam), Vietnam E-commerce White Book, annual edition, reporting e-commerce turnover and its share of total retail sales. Available at: https://vntr.moit.gov.vn/news/the-white-book-on-vietnamese-e-business-2021 (accessed on 24 September 2026).
MISHRA, N., and VALENCIA, A. M. P. “Digital services and digital trade in the Asia pacific: An alternative model for digital integration?”. Asia Pacific Law Review, v. 31, n. 2, 2023, pp. 489-513. https://doi.org/10.1080/10192557.2023.2216058
NEWMAN, J. M. “Antitrust in zero-price markets: Foundations”. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, v. 164, n. 1, 2015, pp. 149-206. Available at: https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/penn_law_review/vol164/iss1/4/ (accessed on 20 July 2026).
NGUYỄN, N. Q. “Khái niệm ‘Người gác cổng’ (gatekeeper) trong Đạo luật Thị trường số của Liên minh Châu Âu và khả năng tiếp nhận vào pháp luật cạnh tranh Việt Nam”. Tạp chí Pháp luật và Phát triển. 2026. Available at: https://phapluatphattrien.vn/khai-niem-nguoi-gac-cong-gatekeeper-trong-dao-luat-thi-truong-so-cua-lien-minh-chau-au-va-kha-nang-tiep-nhan-vao-phap-luat-canh-tranh-viet-nam-d6016.html (accessed on 27 August 2026).
NGUYEN, Q. V. “Vietnam’s new Competition Law 2018”. Vietnam Business Law Blog, 2018. Available at: https://vietnam-business-law.info/blog/2018/7/30/vietnams-new-competition-law-2018 (accessed on 10 July 2026).
NORTON ROSE FULBRIGHT. Vietnam: Competition law fact sheet. 2023. Available at: https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/dccbee52/competition-law-fact-sheet-vietnam (accessed on 10 July 2026).
OECD. Quality considerations in digital zero-price markets, background note DAF/COMP(2018)14. OECD Publishing, 2018. Available at: https://one.oecd.org/document/DAF/COMP(2018)14/en/pdf (accessed on 20 July 2026).
OECD. Rethinking antitrust tools for multi-sided platforms. OECD Publishing, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1787/a013f740-en
PRAKASH, A., CHEN, L., and SHRESTHA, R. “Digital transformation and Indo-Pacific’s participation into GVCs”. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, v. 26, n. 4, 2025, pp. 621-647. https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340371.
PRS LEGISLATIVE RESEARCH. Report summary: digital competition law. 2024. Available at: https://prsindia.org/policy/report-summaries/digital-competition-law (accessed on 10 July 2026).
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, ch. 12 (Electronic Commerce). Available at: https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Regional-Comprehensive-Economic-Partnership-RCEP-Agreement-Full-Text.pdf (accessed on 20 September 2026).
Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 September 2022 on contestable and fair markets in the digital sector (Digital Markets Act), OJ L 265, 12.10.2022, Arts. 2-3. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2022/1925/2022-10-12/eng (accessed on 20 July 2026).
ROCHET, J. C., and TIROLE, J. “Platform competition in two-sided markets”. Journal of the European Economic Association, v. 1, n. 4, 2003, pp. 990-1029. https://doi.org/10.1162/154247603322493212
SINGH, S. “Digital economy partnership agreement and the quest for the global digital trade rule-making: Indian perspective”. Asia Pacific Law Review, v. 33, n. 2, 2025, pp. 289-315, https://doi.org/10.1080/10192557.2025.2478395
STANDING COMMITTEE ON FINANCE (Lok Sabha, India). 25th Report, 11 August 2025, on the demands for grants of the Ministry of Corporate Affairs and the proposed digital competition framework. Available at: https://elibrary.sansad.in/server/api/core/bitstreams/1cbc40ec-3b3a-42c7-a5f4-f9f481758750/view (accessed on 21 September 2026).
TAXMANN. [Analysis] draft digital competition bill 2024-A new era of regulation for systematically significant digital enterprises. 2024. Available at: https://www.taxmann.com/post/blog/analysis-digital-competition-law/ (accessed on 10 July 2026).
Telecommunications Business Act (Republic of Korea), as amended in 2021 in respect of app-market business operators. Available at: https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=64463&lang=ENG (accessed 21 September 2026).
THE SAIGON TIMES. Cross-border TV service providers must get license in Vietnam. 2023. Available at: https://news.tuoitre.vn/saigontimes/cross-border-tv-service-providers-must-get-license-in-vietnam-105223157.htm (accessed on 20 September 2026).
TILLEKE & GIBBINS. “Vietnam 2022 ICT Legislation Year in Review”. Lexology, 2023. Available at: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=6d3b24b1-c5af-40a8-9253-c441ab3b9f83 (accessed on 10 July 2026).
TILLEKE & GIBBINS. New decree will impact over-the-top TV services and on-demand content in Vietnam. 2022. Available at: https://www.tilleke.com/insights/new-decree-will-impact-over-the-top-tv-services-and-on-demand-content-in-vietnam/ (accessed on 10 July 2026).
Treasury Laws Amendment (News Media and Digital Platforms Mandatory Bargaining Code) Act 2021 (Australia). Available at: https://www.accc.gov.au/by-industry/digital-platforms-and-services/news-media-bargaining-code/news-media-bargaining-code/final-legislation (accessed on 21 September 2026).
TUOI TRE NEWS. Facebook, Google dominate online ad in Vietnam. 2019. Available at: https://news.tuoitre.vn/facebook-google-dominate-online-ad-in-vietnam-10347085.htm (accessed on 10 July 2026).
UK–Viet Nam Free Trade Agreement. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5ff7380ed3bf7f65d69a5ca8/CS_Viet_Nam_1.2021_Free_Trade_Agreement_UK_Vietnam.pdf (accessed 20 September 2026).
UNCTAD. Competition issues in the digital economy, TD/B/C.I/CLP/54, Geneva. 2019. Available at: https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ciclpd54_en.pdf (accessed on 20 July 2026).
UNCTAD. Digital economy report 2019: Value creation and capture - implications for developing countries. United Nations, Geneva. 2019. Available at: https://unctad.org/publication/digital-economy-report-2019 (accessed on 20 July 2026).
VIỆT NAM NEWS. Foreign digital service providers pay nearly $480 million in taxes. 2026. Available at: https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/1785412/foreign-digital-service-providers-pay-nearly-480-million-in-taxes.html (accessed on 27 August 2026).
VIETNAM BRIEFING. Netflix Vietnam: A rocky market entry explained. 2023. Available at: https://www.vietnam-briefing.com/news/netflix-vietnam-market-entry-2023.html/ (accessed on 10 July 2026).
VIETNAM NEWS. No violation found in Grab-Uber deal: VCC. 2019. Available at: https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/521577/no-violation-found-in-grab-uber-deal-vcc.html (accessed on 10 July 2026).
VIETNAM+ (VIETNAMPLUS). Cục Cạnh tranh khiếu nại quyết định xử lý vụ việc Grab mua lại Uber. 2019. Available at: https://www.vietnamplus.vn/cuc-canh-tranh-khieu-nai-quyet-dinh-xu-ly-vu-viec-grab-mua-lai-uber-post579988.vnp (accessed on 20 September 2026).
VIETNAMNET. Digital ads on Vietnam platforms can compete with Google, Facebook. 2024. Available at: https://vietnamnet.vn/en/digital-ads-on-vietnam-platforms-can-compete-with-google-facebook-2276586.html (accessed on 10 July 2026).
VNEXPRESS INTERNATIONAL. Netflix will be blocked without local office: Official. 2023. Available at: https://e.vnexpress.net/news/companies/netflix-will-be-blocked-without-local-office-official-4575516.html (accessed on 10 July 2026).
VNEXPRESS. Vì sao Việt Nam không phạt vụ Grab mua Uber như các nước? 2019. Available at: https://vnexpress.net/vi-sao-viet-nam-khong-phat-vu-grab-mua-uber-nhu-cac-nuoc-3941522.html (accessed on 3 September 2026).
YIN, R. K. Case study research and applications: Design and methods, 6th ed. SAGE Publications. 2018. Available at: https://ebooks.umu.ac.ug/librarian/books-file/Case%20Study%20Research%20and%20Applications.pdf (accessed on 20 September 2026).
ZWEIGERT, K., and KÖTZ, H. An introduction to comparative law, 3rd ed. Clarendon Press. 1998. Available at: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/an-introduction-to-comparative-law-9780198268598 (accessed on 20 July 2026).
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Chinh N. Tran
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Those authors who have published with this journal, accept the following terms:
The authors cede all their copyrights to the magazine Cadernos de Dereito Actual, which will be in charge of disseminating and always quoting the author.
The authors agree not to send the article or publish it in another magazine.
The authors are allowed and recommended to disseminate their work through the Internet (e.g., in institutional telematic archives or on their website) before and during the submission process, which can produce interesting exchanges and increase the number of citations of the published work, provided that reference is made to Cadernos de Dereito Actual.
All contents published in the magazine are protected under a "Creative Commons - Attribution - Non-Commercial" license. Everyone has the right to freely access the contents of the magazine.
